Offshore Wind and Wildlife

Offshore Wind and Wildlife in the U.S.

Offshore wind energy can make an important contribution to our nation's environmental health and national security. It is a wholly domestic and inexhaustible resource that generates no air or water pollution or hazardous waste, does not deplete fresh water resources, and requires no mining, transportation, or refining of a feedstock or fuel. Finally, as a source of energy with no air emissions, offshore wind energy will help mitigate climate change, the greatest threat to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems globally.

The following information compiled by the American Wind Energy Association's Offshore Wind Working Group summarizes the current scientific studies demonstrating the low impact to wildlife posed by offshore wind energy facilities.

Downloadable factsheet and references:

Birds

Bird density is significantly lower in offshore environments than it is in terrestrial environments.
Most sea birds and waterfowl usually fly below rotor swept altitudes while nocturnally migrating land and shorebirds usually fly above rotor swept areas.
Birds have a strong tendency to avoid offshore wind facilities.
Birds are unlikely to need to expend significant amounts of additional energy to avoid offshore wind facilities.
Bird collision fatality rates at offshore wind facilities are insignificant in comparison to natural mortality.
Climate change associated with traditional forms of energy generation may cause severe damage to seabird populations.

Bats

Bats are primarily species of terrestrial environments though a few species are known to forage and migrate offshore.
Bats migrate lower than 30 feet above the water surface, which is below the rotor swept area.

Fish

Offshore wind turbine support structures can function as artificial reefs, causing an increase in fish habitat and localized population for some species.
Sound and vibration associated with the construction and decommissioning of offshore wind facilities are:

- Temporary and localized and are not expected to result in significant damage to fish auditory tissue or anatomy/physiology.
- Generally below ambient levels and not likely to result in long-term or population-level impacts to fish.

Marine Mammals & Sea Turtles

Sound impacts to marine mammals and sea turtles from installation and decommissioning of wind facilities may be effectively mitigated using known and validated techniques.
Vessel traffic during construction, maintenance, and decommissioning pose a minor strike threat to mammals and turtles,a risk that can be reduced by using dedicated shipboard observers and other vessel operational safeguards.
Abundance of marine mammals may be reduced in the vicinity of the offshore wind facility during the entire construction period but typically rebounds in the vicinity of the facility within hours after construction ends.

Benthos & Plankton

Wind turbine support structures and scour protection create a three-dimensional structure on top of the ocean floor that can be colonized by benthic invertebrates.
Functioning as artificial reefs, wind turbine support structures can provide increased habitat diversity and serve as a refuge, nursery, and additional food source for some species of large invertebrates.
Offshore wind facilities generally do not alter water circulation or hydrodynamics in ways that substantially impact benthic communities.
Sound and vibration related to offshore wind energy operations, as well as pile driving and other construction/decommissioning activities, are not expected to have adverse effects to benthic and plankton communities.

References

Birds

"Bird density is significantly lower in offshore environments than it is in terrestrial environments."

Brooke, M. de L. 2004. The food consumption of the World's seabirds. Proc. Biol. Sci. 271: S246-S248.

Emlen, J.T., DeJong, M.J., Jaeger, M.J., Moermond, T.C., Rusterholz, K.A., White, R.P. 1986. Density trends and range boundary constraints of forest birds along a latitudinal gradient. Auk 103: 791-803.

Gaston, K.J., Blackburn, T. 1997. How many birds are there? Biodiv. Conserv. 6: 615-625.

Mills, G.S., Dunning, J.B., Bates, J.M. 1991. The relationship between breeding bird density and vegetation volume. Wilson Bull. 103: 468-479.

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. 2009a. Baseline studies. December 2008-March 2009 Quarterly Report. Geo-Marine, Inc.

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection. 2009b Baseline studies. April-June 2009 Quarterly Report. Geo-Marine, Inc

New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Office of Science. 2010. Ocean/wind power ecological baseline studies, Vol. II: avian studies. Prepared by Geo-Marine, Inc., Trenton, New Jersey, USA.

Post, W., Seals, C.A. 1991. Bird density and productivity in an impounded cattail marsh. J. Field Ornith. 62: 195-199.

Swift, B.L., Larson, J.S., DeGraff, R.M. 1984. Relationships of breeding bird density and loonsity to habitat variables in forested wetlands. Wilson Bull. 96: 48-59.

"Most seabirds and waterfowl usually fly below rotor swept altitudes while nocturnally migrating land and shorebirds usually fly above rotor swept areas."

Burger, J., Gordon, C., Niles,L., Newman, J., Forcey, G., Vlietstra, L. 2011. Risk evaluation for federally listed (roseate tern, piping plover) or candidate (red knot) bird species in offshore waters: a first step for managing the potential impacts of wind facility development on the Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Renewable Energy 36: 338-351.

Desholm, M., Kahlert, J. 2005. Avian collision risk at an offshore wind farm. Biol. Lett. 1: 296-298.

Enticott, J. and Tipling, D. 1997.Seabirds of the World.Stackpole Books.

ESS Group, Inc., Hatch, J.J., Kerlinger, P. 2004. Appendix 5.7-H. Evaluation of the Roseate Tern and Piping Plover for the Cape Wind Project, Nantucket Sound.

Exo, K.M., Hüppop, O. Garthe, S. 2003. Birds and offshore wind farms: a hot topic in marine ecology. Wader Study Group Bull. 100:50-53.

Gill, F. B. 1995.Ornithology (2nd Edition).W. H. Freeman and Company.

Griffin, L., Rees, E., Hughes, B. 2010. Whooper swan Cygnus cygnus migration in relation to offshore wind farms. BOU Proceedings - Climate Change and Birds. http://www.bou.org.uk/bouproc-net/ccb/griffin-etal.pdf

Guarnaccia, J., Kerlinger, P. 2007. Feasibility study of potential avian risk from wind energy development, Western Ohio Lakeshore Region, Lucas, Ottawa, Sandusky, Erie, and Lorain Counties, Ohio. AWS Truewind, LLC, USA.

Hüppop, O., Dierschke, J., Wendeln, H. 2005. Migrating birds and offshore-windfarms: conflicts and solutions. Berichte zum Vogelschutz 41: 127-218.

Huntington, Charles E., Ronald G. Butler and Robert A. Mauck. 1996. Leach's Storm-Petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Larsen, J.K., Guillemette, M. 2007. Effects of wind turbines on flight behaviour of wintering common eiders: implications for habitat use and collision risk. J. Appl. Ecol. 44: 516-522.

Mowbray, Thomas B. 2002. Northern Gannet (Morus bassanus), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.). Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology

Paton, P., K. Winiarski, C. Trocki, S. McWilliams. 2010.Spatial distribution, abundance, and flight ecology of birds in nearshore and offshore waters of Rhode Island.Interim technical report for the Rhode Island Ocean Special Area Management Plan 2010.University of Rhode Island, technical report #11.

Perkins, S., Allison, T., Jones, A., Sadoti, G. 2003. Survey of tern activity within Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts, during premigratory fall staging. Final Report for the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative.

Perkins, S., Allison, T., Jones, A., Sadoti, G. 2004. A survey of tern activity within Nantucket Sound, Massachusetts, during the 2003 fall staging period. Final Report for the Massachusetts Technology Collaborative. 23 pp.

Pettersson, J. 2005. Waterfowl and offshore wind farms. A study in southern Kalmar Sound, Sweden. Spring and autumn migrations 1999-2003.

"Birds have a strong tendency to avoid offshore wind facilities."

Desholm, M., Kahlert, J. 2005. Avian collision risk at an offshore wind farm. Biol. Lett. 1: 296-298.

Dooling, R. 2002. Avian hearing and the avoidance of wind turbines. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado.

Larsen, J.K., Guillemette, M. 2007. Effects of wind turbines on flight behaviour of wintering common eiders: implications for habitat use and collision risk. J. Appl. Ecol. 44: 516-522.

Madsen, J., Boertmann, D. 2008. Animal behavioral adaptation to changing landscapes: spring-staging geese habituate to wind farms. Landscape Ecol. 23: 1007-1011.

Petersen, I.K., Christensen, T.K., Kahlert, J., Desholm, M., Fox, A.D. 2006. Final results of bird studies at the offshore wind farms at Nysted and Horns Reef, Denmark. Commissioned report to Elsam Engeneering and Energy E2. 49 pp.

Pettersson, J. 2005. Waterfowl and offshore wind farms. A study in southern Kalmar Sound, Sweden. Spring and autumn migrations 1999-2003.

"Birds are unlikely to need to expend significant amounts of additional energy to avoid offshore wind facilities."

Everaert, J., Stienen, W.W.M. 2006. Impact of wind turbines on birds in Zeebrugge (Belgium): Significant effect on breeding tern colony due to collisions. Biodiv. Conserv. 16: 3345-3359.

Masden E.A., Haydon D.T., Fox A.D., Furness R.W. 2010. Barriers to movement: Modelling energetic costs of avoiding marine wind farms amongst breeding seabirds. Marine Pollution Bull. 60: 1085-1091

"Bird collision fatality rates at offshore wind facilities are insignificant in comparison to natural mortality."

Allison, T.D., Jedrey E., Perkins, S. 2008. Avian issues for offshore wind development. Mar. Tech. Soc. J. 42: 28-38.

Desholm, M., Kahlert, J. 2005. Avian collision risk at an offshore wind farm. Biol. Lett. 1: 296-298.

Desholm, M. 2005. TADS investigations of avian collision risk at Nysted offshore wind farm, autumn 2004. National Environmental Research Institute.

European Commission. 2010. Guidance document: Wind energy development and Natura 2000.

Fox, A.D.,Desholm, M.J., Kahlert, J.A.,Christensen, T.K., Petersen, I.K.2006. Information needs to support environmental impact assessment of the effects of European marine offshore wind farms on birds. Ibis 148: 129-144.

Newton, I., Little, B. 2009. Assessment of wind-farm and other bird casualties from carcasses found on a Northumbrian beach over an 11-year period. Bird Study 56: 158-167.

Pettersson, J. 2005. Waterfowl and offshore wind farms. A study in southern Kalmar Sound, Sweden. Spring and autumn migrations 1999-2003.

Russell, R.W. 2005. Interactions between migrating birds and offshore oil and gas platforms in the northern Gulf of Mexico: Final Report. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2005-009. 348 pp.

"Climate change associated with traditional forms of energy generation may cause severe damage to seabird populations."

Allison, T.D., Jedrey E., Perkins, S. 2008. Avian issues for offshore wind development. Mar. Tech. Soc. J. 42: 28-38.

Gonzáles-Solís, J., Shaffer, S.A. 2009. Introduction and synthesis: spatial ecology of seabirds at sea. Marine Ecol. Progress Ser. 391: 117-120.

Bats

"Bats are primarily species of terrestrial environments though a few species are known to forage and migrate offshore."

Ahlén. I. (2005) Risker för fladdermöss med havsbaserad vindkraft. Slutrapport från förstudien 2005. Projektnummer 22316-1. [In Swedish with English summary. Bat casualty risks at offshore wind power turbines. Report from introductory studies.]

Ahlén, I. (2006) Risker för fladdermöss med havsbaserad vindkraft. Slutrapport för 2006 till Energimyndigheten. Projektnr 22514-1. [In Swedish with English summary. Risk assessment for bats at offshore windpower turbines. Final report for 2006 to the Swedish Energy Administration.]

Ahlén I., Baagøe,H.J.,Bach, L & Pettersson, J. (2007) Bats and offshore wind turbines studied in southern Scandinavia. Swedish Environmental Protection Agency.

Ahlén I., Baagøe, H.J. & Bach, L. (2009) Behavior of Scandinavian bats during migration and foraging at sea. Journal of Mammalogy, 90(6), 1318-1323.

Esbérard, C. E. L. & Moreira, S.C. (2006). Second record of Lasiurus ega (Gervais) (Mammalia, Chiroptera, Vespertilionidae) over the South Atlantic. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 66:1a, 185-186.

Griffin, D.R. (1940) Migrations of New England bats. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, 86, 217-246.

Hutterer, R., Ivanova, T., Meyer-Cords, C. & Rodrigues, L. (2005) Bat migrations in Europe: a review of banding data and literature. Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt, 28, 1-172.

Merriam, C.H. (1888) Do any Canadian bats migrate? Evidence in the affirmative. Proceedings and Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 5, 85-87.

Miller, Jr.,G.S. (1897) Migration of bats on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Science, New Series 5(118), 541-543.

Stantec.2011.Presented at: 2nd Joint Meeting of Northeastern Bat Working Group, Midwest Bat Working Group, Southeastern Bat Diversity Network, and First Colloquium on the Conservation of Mammals in the Eastern United States.Louisville, KY.February 23-25, 2011.

"Bats migrate lower than 30 feet above the water surface, which is below the rotor swept area."

Ahlén I., Baagøe, H.J. & Bach, L.(2009) Behavior of Scandinavian bats during migration and foraging at sea.Journal of Mammalogy, 90(6), 1318-1323.

Fish

"Offshore wind turbine support structures can function as artificial reefs enhancing the local ecosystem, resulting in increased fish habitat and localized population increases for some species."

A.J. Kenny and H.L. Rees (1992) The Effects of Marine Gravel Extraction on the Macrobenthos: Early Post-dredging Recolonization. Marine Pollution Bulletin, Volume 28, No. 7, pp 442-447, 1994.

Elsam Engineering and ENERGI E2. 2005. Review report 2004. The Danish Offshore Wind Farm Demonstration Project: Horns Rev and Nysted Offshore Wind Farms Environmental impact assessment and monitoring.

Gill, A. B. Offshore renewable energy: ecological implications of generating electricity in the coastal zone. Journal of Applied Ecology Volume 42, Issue 4, pages 605–615, August 2005.

Hiscock, K., Tyler-Walters, H. and Jones, H. (2002) High Level Environmental Screening Study for Offshore Wind Farm Developments: Marine Habitats and Species Project. Report from the Marine Biological Association to the Department of Trade and Industry New and Renewable Energy Programme. AEA Technology, Environment Contract: W/35/00632/00/00.

Hoffman, E., Astrup, J., Larsen, F. & Munch-Petersen, S. (2000) Effects of Marine Windfarms on the Distribution of Fish, Shellfish and Marine Mammals in the Horns Rev Area. Report to ELSAMPROJEKT A/S. Report No. Baggrundsrapport 24. Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Lyngby, Denmark.

Lindeboom, H.J. et al (2011) Short-term ecological effects of an offshore wind farm in the Dutch coast zone: a compilation. Environmental Research. Letters Volume. 6 035101

Metoc Plc. (2000) An Assessment of the Environmental Effects of Offshore Wind Farms. Report to ETSU (Department of Trade and Industry). W/35/00543/REP.

Rodmell, D. and M. Johnson (2005) The Development of Marine Based Wind Energy Generation and Inshore Fisheries in K Waters: Are They Compatible? In: 'Who owns the sea?', (Who owns the sea workshop proceedings,Tjarno, Sweden, 24 - 27 June 2002), M. Johnson and C. Wheatley eds.

Shaw, R.F, D.C. Lindquist, M.C. Benfield, T. Farooqi, and J.T. Plunket. Offshore Petroleum Platforms: Functional Significance for Larval Fish across Longitudinal and Latitudinal Gradients. OCS Study MMS 2002-007. December 2002.

Wilson, C.A., A. Pierce, and M.W. Miller. 2003. Rigs and Reefs: a Comparison of the Fish Communities at Two Artificial Reefs, a Production Platform, and a Natural Reef in the Northern Gulf of Mexico. Prepared by the Coastal Fisheries Institute, School of the Coast and Environment. Louisiana State University. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Minerals Mgmt. Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2003-009. 95 pp.

Wilson, Jennifer Claire. The University of Hull. Offshore wind farms: Their impacts and potential habitat gains as artificial reefs, in particular for fish being a dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of MSc. Estuarine and Coastal Science and Management. BSc (Hons) Marine and Freshwater Biology, University of Hull, September 2007.

"Sound and vibration associated with the construction and decommissioning of offshore wind facilities are temporary and localized and are not expected to result in significant damage to fish auditory tissue or anatomy/physiology."

Mueller-Blenkle, C., P.K. McGreggor, A.B. Gill, M.H. Andersson, J. Metcalfe, V. Bendall, P. Sigray, D. Wood, and F. Thomsen. 2010. COWRI Ref: Fish 06-08 / Cefas Ref: C3371 Technical Report. Effects of Pile-Driving Noise on the Behavior of Marine Fish.

Popper and Hastings. 2009. The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes. Journal of Fish Biology (2009) 75, 455–489 doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2009.02319.x.

Vella, G., I. Rushforth, E. Mason, A. Hough, R. England, P. Styles, T. Holt, and P. Thorne. Assessment of the effects of noise and vibration from offshore wind farms on marine wildlife. ETSU W/13/00566/REP. DTI/Pub URN 01/1341. First published 2001.

California Department of Transportation.2009. Technical Guidance for the Assessment and Mitigation of the Hydroacoustic Effects of Pile-driving on Fish.

Continental Shelf Associates, Inc. (CSA). 2004.Geological and geophysical exploration from mineral resources on the Gulf of Mexico outer continental shelf. U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, LA. OCS Study MMS 2004-054. 138 pp. + app.

Hastings M.C. and A.N. Popper. 2005. Effects of sound on fish. Subconsultants to Jones and Stokes under California Department of Transportation Contract No. 43A0139.

Jarvis, Christina M. An evaluation of the wildlife impacts of offshore wind development relative to fossil fuel power production. A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Marine Policy. Fall 2005.

Popper A.N., and N.L. Clarke. 1976.The auditory system of the goldfish (Carassius auratus): Effects of intense acoustic stimulation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 53A: 11-18.

Metoc Plc. (2000) An Assessment of the Environmental Effects of Offshore Wind Farms. Report to ETSU (Department of Trade and Industry). W/35/00543/REP.

Minerals Management Service (MMS). 2007. Final Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement for Alternative Energy Development and Production and Alternate Use Facilities on the Outer Continental Shelf. October 2007.

Thomsen, F., Lüdemann, K., Kafemann, R. and Piper, W. (2006) Effects of offshore wind farm noise on marine mammals and fish biola, Hamburg, Germany, on behalf of COWRIE Ltd.

"Sound and vibration associated with construction and decommissioning of offshore wind facilities are generally below ambient levels and not likely to result in long-term or population-level impacts to fish."

Banner, Arnold and Martin Hyatt. 1973. Effects of Noise on Eggs and Larvae of Two Estuarine Fishes. Trans. Amer. Fish Soc., 1973, No. 1.

Greenpeace (2005) 'Offshore wind: Implementing a new powerhouse for Europe, grid connection, environmental impact and political framework', Brussels, Belgium

Nedwell , J. R, Parvin, S. J., Edwards, B., Workman, R., Brooker, A.G and Kynoch, J. E., 2007. Measurement and interpretation of underwater noise during construction and operation of offshore wind farms in UK waters. Subacoustech Report No. 544R0738 to COWRIE Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-9554279-5-4.

Thomsen, F., Lüdemann, K., Kafemann, R. and Piper, W. (2006) Effects of offshore wind farm noise on marine mammals and fish biola, Hamburg, Germany, on behalf of COWRIE Ltd.

Wahlberg, M., and Westerberg, H. 2005. Hearing in fish and their reactions to sounds from offshore wind farms. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 288: 295e309.

Westerberg, H. (1999) Impact Studies of Sea-Based Windpower in Sweden. Technische Eingriffe in marine Lebensraume.

Marine Mammals & Sea Turtles

"Noise impacts to marine mammals and sea turtles from installation and decommissioning of wind facilities may be effectively mitigated using known and validated techniques."

Bailey, H., Clay, G., Coates, E. A., Lusseau, D., Senior, B. and Thompson, P. M. (2010) Using T-PODs to assess variations in the occurrence of coastal bottlenose dolphins and harbour porpoises. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 20, 150–158. doi: 10.1002/aqc.1060

Carlstrom, J., Berggren, P., & Tregenza, N. (2009) Spatial and temporal impact of pingers on porpoises. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 66(1), 72-82.

David, J. (2006) Likely sensitivity of bottlenose dolphins to pile-driving noise. Water and Environment Journal, 20(1), 48-54. doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2005.00023.x

Dong Energy (2006) Vatenfall, Danish Energy Authority. Danish Offshore Wind: key environmental issues. ISBN 87: 7844-625-0. 142 pp.

Gordon, J., Thompson, D., Gillespie, D., Lonergan, M., Calderan, S., Jaffey, B., & Todd, V. (2007) Assessment of the potential for acoustic deterrents to mitigate the impact on marine mammals of underwater noise arising from the construction of offshore wind farms.COWRIE DETER-01- 2007. Prepared for Collaborative Offshore Wind Research into the Environment, United Kingdom, by Gatty Marine Laboratory, University of St. Andrews, Scotland.

Jefferson, T. A., Hung, S. K., & Würsig, B. (2009) Protecting small cetaceans from coastal development: Impact assessment and mitigation experience in Hong Kong. Marine Policy, 33(2), 305-311. doi:10.1016/j.marpol.2008.07.011

Manwell, J.F., McGowan, J.G., & Rogers, A.L. (2009) Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application.John Wiley & Sons Ltd.West Sussex, UK.

Minerals Management Service (2009) Final Environmental Impact Statement: Cape Wind Energy Project.OSC Publication Number 2008-040. Herndon, Virginia: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service.

Nehls, G., Betke, K., Eckelmann, S. & Ros. M. (2007) Assessment and costs of potential engineering solutions for the mitigation of the impacts of underwater noise arising from the construction of offshore windfarms.BioConsult SH report, Husum, Germany. On behalf of COWRIE Ltd.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (2010) Takes of marine mammals incidental to specified activities; Installation of meteorological data collection facilities in the mid‐Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf. Federal Register, 75:140, 42698-42708.

Richardson, W.J., Greene, C.R., Malme, C.I., & Thompson, D.H. (1995) Marine mammals and noise. Academic Press, San Diego

Wilhelmsson, D., Malm, T., Thompson, R., Tchou, J., Sarantakos, G., McCormick, N., Luitjens, S., Gullström, M., Patterson Edwards, J.K., Amir, O. and Dubi, A. (eds.) (2010). Greening Blue Energy: Identifying and managing the biodiversity risks and opportunities of offshore renewable energy. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN. 102pp.

Würsig, B., Greene, C. R., & Jefferson, T. A. (2000) Development of an air bubble curtain to reduce underwater noise of percussive piling. Marine Environmental Research, 49(1), 79-93. doi:10.1016/S0141-1136(99)00050-1

"Vessel traffic during construction, maintenance, and decommissioning pose a relatively minor strike threat to mammals and turtles, a risk that can be reduced with dedicated shipboard observers and other vessel operational safeguards."

Laist, D., Knowlton, A., Mead, J., Collet, A., & Podesta, M. (2001) Collisions between ships and whales. Marine Mammal Science, 17(1), 35-75.

Vanderlaan, S.M., Corbett, J. J., Green, S.L., Callahan, J.A., Wang, C., Kenney, R., Taggart, C.T., Firestone, J. (2009) Probability and Mitigation of Vessel Encounters with North Atlantic Right Whales. Endangered Species Research, 6(3), 273-285.

Wilson, B. Batty, R. S., Daunt, F. & Carter, C. (2007) Collision risks between marine renewable energy devices and mammals, fish and diving birds. Report to the Scottish Executive. Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, Scotland, PA37 1QA.

"Abundance of marine mammals may be reduced in the vicinity of the offshore wind facility during the entire construction period but typically rebound in the vicinity of the facility within hours after construction ends."

Brandt, M., Diederichs, A., Betke, K., & Nehls, G. (2011) Responses of harbour porpoises to pile driving at the Horns Rev II offshore wind farm in the Danish North Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 421, 205-216. doi:10.3354/meps08888

Carstensen, J., Henriksen, O., & Teilmann, J. (2006) Impacts of offshore wind farm construction on harbour porpoises: acoustic monitoring of echolocation activity using porpoise detectors (T-PODs). Marine Ecology Progress Series, 321, 295-308.

Dong Energy (2006) Vatenfall, Danish Energy Authority. Danish Offshore Wind: key environmental issues. ISBN 87: 7844-625-0. 142 pp.

Tougaard, J., Carstensen, J., Henriksen, O.D., Skov, H., Teilmann, J. (2003) Short-term effects of the construction of wind turbines on harbour porpoises at Horns Reef. Tech rep HME/362-02662 to Techwise A/S, Hedeselskabet, Roskilde.

Benthos & Plankton

"Wind turbine support structures and scour protection create a three-dimensional structure on top of the ocean floor that can be colonized by benthic invertebrates."

Danish Institute for Fisheries Research, Department of Marine Fisheries. Baggrundsrapport nr. 24. Effects of marine wind farms on the distribution of fish, shellfish and marine mammals in the Horns Rev area. Report to ELSAMPROJEKT A/S. May 2000.

Dong Energy 2006. Vatenfall, Danish Energy Authority. The Danish Forest, Nature Agency. Danish offshore wind- key environmental issues. ISBN 87: 7844-625-0. 142 pp.

EMU 2008. Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm Turbine Foundation Faunal Colonisation Diving Survey. Report No 08/J/1/03/1034/0839

Leonhard, S.B. and J. Pedersen. 2006. Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm. Final Report. Annual Report 2005

Wilhelmsson, D. and T. Malm. 2008. Fouling assemblages on offshore wind power plants and adjacent substrata. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 79: 459–466.

"Functioning as artificial reefs, wind turbine support structures can provide increased habitat diversity and serve as a refuge, nursery, and additional food source for some species of large invertebrates."

Leonhard, S.B. and J. Pedersen. 2006. Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm. Final Report. Annual Report 2005

Linley E.A.S., T.A. Wilding, K. Black, A.J.S. Hawkins and S. Mangi. 2007. Review of the reef effects of offshore wind farm structures and their potential for enhancement and mitigation. Report from PML Applications Ltd and the Scottish Association for Marine Science to the Department for Business, Enterprise and egulatory Reform (BERR), Contract No: RFCA/005/0029P

Wilhelmsson, D. , T. Malm and M.C. Ohman. 2006. The influence of offshore windpower on demersal fish. ICES Journal of Marine Science 63: 775-784.

"Offshore wind facilities generally do not alter water circulation or hydrodynamics in ways that substantially impact benthic communities."

APBmer Ltd. 2010. A further review of sediment monitoring data. Commissioned by Cowrie Ltd. (Project Reference ScourSed-09).

Dong Energy 2006. Vatenfall, Danish Energy Authority. The Danish Forest, Nature Agency. Danish offshore wind- key environmental issues. ISBN 87: 7844-625-0. 142 pp.

NWP Offshore Group. 2007. Annual FEPA Monitoring Report (2005-6). March 2007. North Hoyle Offshore Wind Farm

Leonhard, S.B. and J. Pedersen. 2006. Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm. Final Report. Annual Report 2005

Vattenfall 2009. Kentish Flats Offshore Wind Farm FEPA Monitoring Summary Report. March 2009

"Sound and vibration related to offshore wind energy operations, as well as pile driving and other construction/decommissioning activities, are not expected to have adverse effects to benthic and plankton communities."

Leonhard, S.B. and J. Pedersen. 2006. Benthic Communities at Horns Rev Before, During and After Construction of Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm. Final Report. Annual Report 2005

Nedwell, J.R., S.J. Parvin, B. Edwards, R. Workman, A.G. Brooker, and J.E. Kynoch. 2007. (COWRIE NOISE-03-2003 ). Measurement and interpretation of underwater noise during construction and operation of offshore windfarms in UK waters. Subacoustech Report No. 544R0738 to COWRIE Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-9554279-5-4.

Vella , G.; I. Rushforth; E. Mason; A. Hough.; R. England; P. Styles; T.J. Holt; and P. Thorne.2001. Assessment of the effects of noise and vibration from offshore wind farms on marine wildlife. Report to The Department of Trade and Industry . DTI/ Pub URN 01/431. 107 pp.